Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it Essay Example

Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it Essay In linguistics, a great deal of work revolves around phrase structure and comprehension of that phrase structure: decoding it, if you will. This is something that concerns many different linguistic specialists, from syntacticians to translators, and in order to examine the phrase structure (noun phrase {NP}, verb phrase {VP} etc.) it is vital to understand the elements that make up such a phrase structure and how they interact with one another. These elements are known as grammatical functions, and they refer to syntactic relationships between parts of speech, such as subject, object, adjunct and complement (as distinct from the semantic notions of agent and patient). Grammatical functions determine the semantic roles and pragmatic functions of the noun phrase, as well as governing sentence structure and dictating constraints. Grammatical functions are essentially labels of relations in a network, and many grammarians have suggested that they cannot operate simultaneously, but rather, in some sort of hierarchy. There are several types of network available, such as relational networks (on the left) and configurational networks (on the right): S SUBJ PRED OBJ NP VP We will write a custom essay sample on Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer V NP Grammatical functions are therefore defined by Avery Andrews, and others, as being any relationship that it might be useful to recognise which is definable over the sentence structures of a language, regardless of the extent to which it is important for the grammatical principles of that language.1 The notion of a grammatical function hierarchy (also referred to as the agreement hierarchy, and both names will be used in this paper) therefore deserves further exploration, along with any evidence that might motivate it. Andrews first attempts to define various types of grammatical function, using the terms core, oblique, and external. In his view, these constitute successive layers of clause structure and therefore provide the foundations for the grammatical function hierarchy. He classes the core and the oblique as internal, whereby the core is syntactic (consisting of A, the agent; S, the single argument; and O, the patient) and the oblique is semantic (consisting of the others that is, complements and adjuncts). The external, conversely, is pragmatic, and the pragmatic is further divided into two categories: that of the free and that of the bound, whereby the bound has a wider range of pragmatic effects, such as the indication of focus, presupposition or presentational articulation. The whole of the external category is considered independent of the system of internal grammatical relations, and thought of as being superposed onto it. Other texts refer to this as an overlay function.2 This explanation begins to give the interested reader an insight into how the grammatical function hierarchy may be structured, and in their article on noun-phrase accessibility, Keenan and Comrie expand even further on this concept. They identify the grammatical function hierarchy, or noun phrase accessibility, a syntax-free way of identifying relative clauses in an arbitrary language. The grammatical function hierarchy therefore shares with X-bar theory the quality of generalisation: both aim to consolidate a single simplification of human language structure. Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it Essay Example Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it Essay In linguistics, a great deal of work revolves around phrase structure and comprehension of that phrase structure: decoding it, if you will. This is something that concerns many different linguistic specialists, from syntacticians to translators, and in order to examine the phrase structure (noun phrase {NP}, verb phrase {VP} etc.) it is vital to understand the elements that make up such a phrase structure and how they interact with one another. These elements are known as grammatical functions, and they refer to syntactic relationships between parts of speech, such as subject, object, adjunct and complement (as distinct from the semantic notions of agent and patient). Grammatical functions determine the semantic roles and pragmatic functions of the noun phrase, as well as governing sentence structure and dictating constraints. Grammatical functions are essentially labels of relations in a network, and many grammarians have suggested that they cannot operate simultaneously, but rather, in some sort of hierarchy. There are several types of network available, such as relational networks (on the left) and configurational networks (on the right): Grammatical functions are therefore defined by Avery Andrews, and others, as being any relationship that it might be useful to recognise which is definable over the sentence structures of a language, regardless of the extent to which it is important for the grammatical principles of that language.1 The notion of a grammatical function hierarchy (also referred to as the agreement hierarchy, and both names will be used in this paper) therefore deserves further exploration, along with any evidence that might motivate it. We will write a custom essay sample on Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Define the grammatical function hierarchy, and discuss any evidence that motivates it specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Andrews first attempts to define various types of grammatical function, using the terms core, oblique, and external. In his view, these constitute successive layers of clause structure and therefore provide the foundations for the grammatical function hierarchy. He classes the core and the oblique as internal, whereby the core is syntactic (consisting of A, the agent; S, the single argument; and O, the patient) and the oblique is semantic (consisting of the others that is, complements and adjuncts). The external, conversely, is pragmatic, and the pragmatic is further divided into two categories: that of the free and that of the bound, whereby the bound has a wider range of pragmatic effects, such as the indication of focus, presupposition or presentational articulation. The whole of the external category is considered independent of the system of internal grammatical relations, and thought of as being superposed onto it. Other texts refer to this as an overlay function.2 This explanation begins to give the interested reader an insight into how the grammatical function hierarchy may be structured, and in their article on noun-phrase accessibility, Keenan and Comrie expand even further on this concept. They identify the grammatical function hierarchy, or noun phrase accessibility, a syntax-free way of identifying relative clauses in an arbitrary language. The grammatical function hierarchy therefore shares with X-bar theory the quality of generalisation: both aim to consolidate a single simplification of human language structure. The theory relies on a semantically based definition of relative clauses. Right from the outset, Keenan and Comrie state explicitly that they consider any syntactic object to be a relative clause if it specifies a set of objects (perhaps a one-member set) in two steps: a larger set is specified, called the domain of relativisation, and then restricted to some subset of which a certain sentence, the restricting sentence, is true.3 In this respect, then, noun phrase accessibility is almost certainly a theory of relativity of sorts, and it is this that Keenan and Comrie emphasise throughout their dossier. They theorise that the variation in the relativisability of noun-phrase positions is far from random, and that rather, this relativisability of certain positions is dependent upon that of others, and that furthermore, these dependencies are universal. The accessibility hierarchy, as given below, therefore allows for expression of relative accessibility to relativisation of the noun phr ase position in simplex main clauses: SUBJ DO IO OBL GEN OCOMP SubjectDirect ObjectIndirect ObjectOblativeGenitiveObject of Comparison The positions on the accessibility hierarchy are to be understood as specifying a set of possibly grammatical distinctions that a language may make. However, Keenan and Comrie also specify some hierarchy constraints, whereby a language must be able to relativise subjects, any relative clause-forming strategy must apply to a continuous segment of the agreement hierarchy, and strategies that apply at one point of the hierarchy may in principle cease and apply at any lower point.4 The second point, according to Keenan and Comrie, lies at the crux of justification of actual ordering of terms in the accessibility hierarchy. Ultimately, it appears that the aim of the grammatical function hierarchy is to determine the degree of accessibility to relative clause formation. It is only with the introduction of the Primary Relativisation Constraint, however, that this intuition is made explicit. According to this constraint, a language must have a primary relative clause-forming strategy. Additionally, if a primary strategy in a given language can apply to a low position on the hierarchy then it can also apply to all higher positions, and furthermore, a primary strategy may cut off at any point on the hierarchy. There are therefore several provisos attached to the formation and operation of the grammatical function hierarchy but what of any evidence that motivates it?

Bridges

Bridges Bridges Bridges By Maeve Maddox The bridge is one of the most basic human concepts. A tiny child playing with sticks and puddles knows to build a bridge. Not surprisingly, the word bridge, as both noun and verb, has found its way into numerous idioms and expressions. A bridge is a structure forming or carrying a road over a river, ravine, or the like in order to provide a passage between two points. The verb bridge is transitive. Literally, one bridges rivers and gaps: His first contract was to bridge the Monongahela River with an 8-span, 1500-foot-long bridge. The first effort to bridge the gap [between Patna and Sonepur] was Rajendra Setu in 1959. Figuratively, one bridges figurative gaps: 15 Ways to Bridge the Gap Between IT and Business Can Academics Bridge the Gap Between the Academy and the Mainstream Reading Public? Because bridges represent firm connections and safe passage, the noun bridge is used to denote anything that brings people of differing ideas and cultures together in a positive manner: Turkish language a bridge to understanding Service dogs provide a bridge for autistic children to connect with the world†¦ The noun bridge is also used to denote a transition or a cyber connection: With the electronic forms server, our paperless e-forms solution creates a bridge between forms and an ECM/EDM system, A Network Bridge is a hardware or a software [program] that connects two or more networks – maybe one a wired one and the other a wireless one – so that they can communicate with each other. An expression commonly heard in planning sessions is â€Å"We’ll cross that bridge when we come to it.† The meaning is that future problems must be dealt with as they arise. Sometimes it’s wise advice, but sometimes it’s an excuse for not planning for consequences. Here are two more bridge idioms: water under the bridge: something that has happened and cannot be changed. For example, these headlines: Cold War no longer water under the bridge as ships sail to Syria Toledo May Say That Its Water Under the Bridge, but Its Still Payback Time like painting the Forth Bridge: an endless task. The Forth Bridge, a cantilever railway bridge across the Firth of Forth in Scotland, is 8,296 feet long. The saying arose from the idea that by the time maintenance workers starting at one end of the bridge had finished painting it, the bridge would need repainting from the beginning. Here’s a recent use of the idiom: Keeping one of Perthshire’s most spectacular mountains in top condition is like â€Å"painting the Forth Bridge†, the expert in charge of its care has said. The most recent painting of the Forth Bridge took 400 men ten years to complete. This time they applied a triple layer of glass flake epoxy paint that is expected to last until about 2036. The card game called Bridge has nothing to do with the kind that spans water. The game is thought to have originated in the Near East. The game’s name of Bridge may be an alteration of a Turkish word called out during play. This illustration in the OED shows the use of a strange word used by English-speaking bridge players in the 19th century: The one declaring may, instead of declaring trumps, say ‘Biritch’, which means that the hands shall be played without trumps. J. Collinson Biritch 2  Ã‚  (1886). Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:45 Synonyms for â€Å"Food†60 Synonyms for â€Å"Trip†English Grammar 101: Prepositions